Transport
According to Munbuy (1968) ‘There is no escape from transport’, for it is woven into modern society.
‘Transport hits the core of society’; ‘gives structure to space and our concept of space’; ‘shapes and reflects our way of life and our culture’; ‘the functioning of society, largely depends on the quality and design of the transport system’ (Group Transport 2000 Plus, 1990)
FACT: 3/4 of the world’s motor vehicles are to be found in countries where just 1/6th of its population lives
World car production is steadily rising – 70million a year
The Economic Impact of Transport
Transport continues to be a key component of the modernist project and essential to assist in capitalist accumulation, and the economic impact of transport has been driven by this and globalization.
According to Root (2003) Transport technology has played a crucial role in ‘providing the physical means by which domination has occurred’. It has ensured that humankind has access for exploration and development in every corner of the globe. Improvements in transport and communication technologies has resulted in the ‘time/space compression’ (which is metaphorically speaking the shrinking of time and distance). Undoubtedly transport levels are linked to economic growth and data from DESTR, 2001a there is evidence of a rise in the number of trips when a period of economic growth is occurring.
Roads for Prosperity (The Department of Transport, 1989) acknowledges the link between economic growth and ‘the reliability of road travel’, whereby improvements to road networks reducing travel times and increasing the reliability of road travel will boost British industry therefore improve the country’s economic geography by creating opportunities for growth. Transport has facilitated the growth of trade between localities, opening greater and larger markets globally, personally I am of the opinion that this is a positive impact, however, as with every benefit they is always a hidden cost and the phenonmenon of globalization has major consequences for society in terms of economic and social relations. More recently, we have seen a strong backlash against the excesses of the growth in motorized transport, fuelled initially by environmentalists!
Environmental Impacts of Transport
Environmental Impacts of Transport can be direct (usually visual), indirect (less obvious,ysmore difficult to predict and measure) and cumalitive (caused in different ways and are results of additive effects that lead to serious damages to ecosystaems). Transport related activities have many impacts on the environment and as Transport demand grows the severity and implications of such impacts become increasingly noticeable. Passenger transport demand has grown steadily in the EEA-23 over the past decade, thereby making it increasingly difficult to reduce the environmental impacts of transport. In particular, road transport is responsible for the majority of negative impacts of the transport sector on the environment.
Indicators of the transport and environment reporting mechanism (TERM) help to monitor the progress of the EU's transport and environment integration policies.
Here are some of the environmental impacts caused by transport;
Impacts on Air Qulaity
I believe the most important negative effects are contribution to climate change and to local air
Pollution. Emissions of carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx) all contribute to air pollution. Transport emissions and greenhouse gases relationship: In the EEA member countries, emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs) from transport (excluding international air and maritime transport) increased by 27 % between 1990 and 2005. The effects of air pollution include climate change, acidification and urban air pollution.
Natural Resource Depletion
Fossil fuels are the primary energy source for transport. In order to produce transport infrastructure and transport vehicles themselves (metals, plastics) material extraction is required which causes damage to the environment.
Land Use
In the EU, 93% of total land area used for transport belongs to roads. Increased land use for transport infrastructure increases pressures on habitats, effecting biodiversity.
Impacts on Soils
Unfortunately the soil best for building the transport infrastructure is also best for agriculture, because it is stable and flat. Therefore, transport infrastructure uses up valuable agricultural land.
Impacts on Biodiversity
There are three ways in which the transport sector contributes to biodiversity loss: direct damage, fragmentation, and disturbance (EC, 1999).
Impacts of water
Activities caused by the transport sector cause surface and groundwater flow modifications, as well as water quality degradation.
Noise
Excessive noise levels damage people health. Road noise comes from four sources: vehicles;
friction between vehicles and road; driver behavior; and construction (Tsunokawa & Hoban, 1997).
Visual and Aesthetic Impacts
Negative visual and aesthetic impacts of the transport sector are the consequences of
poor planning,
(source: Environmental Impacts of Transport, Central European University
Department of Environmental Sciences & Policy, 2002) http://web.ceu.hu/envsci/sun/EnvImpactsOfTransport.pdf
Transport and Society
In addition, transport infrastructure may significantly affect social and economic factors in local communities and influence people’s health and safety. For example, a positive impact is that transport is a key component in the rebranding and reshaping of urban space. This can be viewed as a benefit of transport. Declining areas can be turned around by greater access and investment potentials (brought by improved transportation). Transport may be the key to breaking the negative cycle of decline faced by inner city areas. Although transport infrastructure intends to connect people and increase communication speed, poor planning can cause the opposite. Giddens (1991) blames transport technologies for the ‘disembedding of social and institutional relations out of their traditional localities’ and ‘reembbeding across great spans of time/space’ by which he means transport technologies has no longer tied people to their traditional localities it has provided such opportunities which can be valued having as both positive and negative impacts. On a positive note, it has provided people with greater opportunities for personal development and employment, but having said this social exclusion is one highly acknowledged topic in connection with transport.
Social exclusion and transport connections
Due to the complexity of transport as a vital ‘tool’ to further other agenda’s, approaches to transport planning and provision must realize the coinciding consequences of any actions. There are often forgotten links between transport and social exclusion. Department of the Environment, Transport and Regions (DETR, 2000a published a report Social Exclusion and the Provision and Avaliability of Public Tansport in which many transport planners refer to for guidance.
The 4 main types of transport social exclusion:
1. Spatial
2. Temporal
3. Financial
4. Personal
Two major studies published in 2000 identified clear connections between social exclusion and transport (DETRA 200a; Jsospeh Rowntree Foundation, 2001). Connections were found among the unemployed, families with young children, the young, those with low incomes & the elderly and particularly there was a very strong relationship between social exclusion and transport in rural areas. Shifts towards investment in more environmental forms of transport, such as heavy and light rail, park and ride, quality bus routes, may not always be appropriate for socially excluded communities. A solution to this serious issue is the direction of new approaches to participative decision-making and consultation needs, to bring excluded groups into the decision-making process.
In addition a study conducted by WHO has shown that road transport is the major source of
human exposure to air pollution and noise (OECD, 2001).
With all these impacts acknowledged the future of transport has changed it’s direction. Now keen to implement various new ideas, systems and schemes. This new outlook is known as sustainable transport.
Sustainable Transport
A transport system which in itself is structurally viable in an economic, environmental and a social sensed and does not impede the achievement of overall sustainability in a society (based on Richardson 2005)
Emerging sustainable development agenda’s has seen pressure applied to authorities to reduce traffic growth and promote less environmentally-damaging modes. For example Ryanair claims to be Europe’s Greenest Airline. (See link:www.ryanair.com/.../ryanair-and-the-environment)
To help measure development of sustainable transport there are various indicators locally, nationally and globally. For example indicators of the transport and environment reporting mechanism (TERM). They help to monitor the progress of the EU's transport and environment integration policies.
Transport emissions and greenhouse gases relationship: In the EEA member countries, emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs) from transport (excluding international air and maritime transport) increased by 27 % between 1990 and 2005.
Globalistaion and the free-market liberal agenda has made local states look for new ways to attract inward investment – focus on new hi-tech, financial & service industries. This has created opportunities to reduce car dominance and provide high quality transport to new sites of employment. Although a positive idea, practically speaking it has been hindered by insufficient funds to invest in public transport. As a result new partnerships are forming, keen to gain through direct/indirect profits of the improved business opportunities. This creates a social consequence whereby less powerful groups in society are being excluded from the benefits of such schemes.
Sustainable Transport and the UK
The UK faces two transport challenges in particular:
· Economic – the system needs to support economic growth (the movement of both goods and people)
· Environment – ensuring impact on local and globak environment is ‘acceptable’
These challenges have been addressed by the development of travel plans (formerly known as ‘Green Travel Plans’. Which are now incorporated into new development planning application documents.
As stated by DfT (2009a, p.6) “A travel plan sets out to combat over-dependency on cars by boosting all the possible alternatives to single occupancy car use. By reducing car miles it can not only benefit the environment but can produce financial benefits and productivity improvements, saving both the business and its staff money and time.”
Such travel plans focus on numerous benefits on national, local and regional scales:
· Regeneration
· Sustainable economic growth
· Promoting healthy lifestyles
· Reducing single occupancy car use
· Managing travel demands
· Climate change
· Social inclusion
(dfT 2009b, p.4)
In conclusion
I have extensively researched transport and documented various positive aspects of the development in transport, as well as outlining the costs of such rapid changes and the impacts that these have had economically, socially and environmentally.
The costs of the environmental effects of the transport sector are difficult to calculate as they are non-marketable representing externalities. (“…effects where
the profit or usefulness of somebody is affected by the actions of somebody else
without any payment being received by the person who suffers the damage from the
person who causes it.” (Quinet, 1993).) Also another difficulty in calculating the costs of the damage to the environment is a very large span of time over which the environmental effects occur.
It is impossible to estimate the future transport behavior with any certainty as I have discovered that transport policy decisions are often loaded with assumptions and looking towards the future management transport planners, professionals and campaigners need to be more aware of the broader forces shaping the city.
Are there any minor (or perhaps major) changes you personally feel could make our present transport system more sustainable?
On a personal note, there are several adjustments that I could make to my transport behavior. I car share to university (this is really because I can not drive – however if I did drive I would encourage others to travel with me, as it saves money as well as being more environmentally friendly!). I could use public transport more regularly, but to be quite frank public transport in this area is absouetly appalling. It is inadequate and unreliable therefore very inconvient. It is also very costly. In order to get people to use public transport there needs to be radical changes. I learnt about the public transport in Curitiba, we could sure learn some lessons from their planning – it is amazing, futuristic and out of this world. I would have no objection to using their public transport.
Here is the key to their success:
The outcome: social, economic and environmental success.
If only we could learn from others!
A very detailed blog. Good to see use of a range of sources.
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